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Descent of English Language from the Indo European family
Language Families:
Modern Linguistic research has claimed
that language can be grouped in families and many languages can be traced to a
common ancestor in remote times. A large group of such related languages
constitute what we call a ‘language family’. The process of divergent
development of a language gives rise to further languages, with common features
of the parent language added to new features, resulting in a whole complex
family of languages with various branches, some more closely and some distantly
related to one another. There are about 250- 300 distinctive language families
in the world. The following are the major language families of the world: Indo-
European Sino– Tibetan Niger– Congo Afro– Asiatic Austronesian Dravidian Austro
Asiatic Altaic Uralic Caucasian.
Indo– European Family of Language:
The Indo-European languages are a family
of related languages that today are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and
also Western and Southern Asia. Just as languages such as Spanish, French,
Portuguese and Italian are all descended from Latin. Indo-European languages
are believed to derive from a hypothetical language known as
Proto-Indo-European, which is no longer spoken.
It is highly probable that the earliest
speakers of this language originally lived around Ukraine and neighbouring
regions in the Caucasus and Southern Russia, then spread to most of the rest of
Europe and later down into India. The earliest possible end of
Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity is believed to be around 3400 BCE. It is
generally believed that it was spoken by nomadic tribes which wandered in the
regions around the Black Sea. They are said to have gone as far as the steppes
of Siberia.
Since the speakers of the
Proto-Indo-European language did not develop a writing system, we have no
physical evidence of it. The science of linguistics has been trying to
reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language using several methods and,
although an accurate reconstruction of it seems impossible, we have today a
general picture of what Proto-Indo-European speakers had in common, both
linguistically and culturally. In addition to the use of comparative methods,
there are studies based on the comparison of myths, laws, and social
institutions.
The Indo-European Family:
It has been proved by the scholars that
it is the parental languages of almost languages of Europe and some of the
languages of Asia. It was split up into various sections and moved in different
directions across the continent of Euro- Asia. Each section got isolated from
the others. Each developed its parent language along its own lines. Gradually
this resulted in the development of different dialects of the original
language. It is believed that as a result of this two- fold process the
original Indo- European was split up into eight distinct groups of dialects by
2000 B. C. or a little later. They were Eastern (Sanskrit), American, Greek,
Albanian, Italic, Balto– Slavonic, Primitive Germanic and Celtic. Each of these
in course of time sub divided and the process continued. According to G L
Brook, the dispersal of the speakers of Indo European took place somewhere
between 3000 and 2000 B. C. New research published today in the journal Nature,
led by University of Adelaide ancient DNA researchers and the Harvard Medical
School, shows that at least some of the Indo-European languages spoken in
Europe were likely the result of a massive migration from Eastern Russia.
Several attempts have been made to
explain how the differences which characterize the various Indo- European
languages came into existence. August Schleicher put forward his ‘Pedigree
Theory’ in 1866. He said that the Indo- European languages developed as a
result of a series of successive bifurcations. He expressed the relations of
the various Indo-European languages to each other by means of a genealogical
tree, though this theory is no longer accepted. Its influence is still seen in
the terminology used by linguists. They speak of the Indo- European family of
languages and discuss whether one language is descended from another. This
theory is objected to on the ground that there are resemblances, like those
between Germanic and Celtic which cut across any such classification. Johannes
Schmidt propounded his ‘Wave Theory’ in 1872 to explain these. According to him
the original speech spread over a wide area. Gradually dialectical differences
arose. In course of time these differences became so marked that they led to
the creation of distinct languages. The dialect area overlapped. It accounts
for the resemblances which are shared by some Indo- European languages. Though
this theory does not explain all the problems involved, it provides a working
hypothesis which can be modified in the light of additional theories. However,
the theories about the splitting up of language tend to assume the homogeneity
of the parent Indo– European language.
Centum and Satem Groups:
The eight branches of the Indo European
(IE) family have generally been divided into two groups, the Centum Languages
(The Western Group) and the Satem Languages (The Eastern Group). This
classification is based on the development of certain sound changes in some of
the languages of the family, but not in all. In the Eastern branches certain
consonants had differences in their development from those in the Western
Group. The Indo– European velar plosive consonants /k/ and /g/ developed into
alveolar fricative /sh/ or /s/ in the Eastern group. At the same time, in the
Western group /k/ and /g/ were retained as velar plosives. For example, Kumtom
the IE form for the word hundred developed into satem in Sanskrit, /k/ becoming
/s/ and into centum in Latin, retaining the /k/.
Based on this development, the Eastern
group viz, Indo- Iranian, Albanian, Armenian and Balto- Slavic are called Satem
languages and the Western group consisting of Hellenic, Italic, Celtic and
Germanic are called Centum languages.
Indo-Iranian:
This branch includes two sub-branches:
Indic and Iranian. Today these languages are predominant in India, Pakistan,
Iran, and its vicinity and also in areas from the Black Sea to Wstern China.
Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indic
sub-branch, is the best known among the early languages of this branch; its
oldest variety, Vedic Sanskrit, is preserved in the Vedas, a collection of hymns
and other religious texts of ancient India. Indic speakers entered the Indian
subcontinent, coming from central Asia around 1500 BCE: In the Rig-Veda, the
hymn 1.131 speaks about a legendary journey that may be considered a distant
memory of this migration.
Avestan is a language that forms part of
the Iranian group. Old Avestan (sometimes called Gathic Avestan) is the oldest
preserved language of the Iranian sub-branch, the “sister” of Sanskrit, which
is the language used in the early Zoroastrian religious texts. Another
important language of the Iranian sub-branch is Old Persian, which is the
language found in the royal inscriptions of the Achaemenid dynasty, starting in
the late 6th century BCE. The earliest datable evidence of this branch dates to
about 1300 BCE.
Today, many Indic languages are spoken
in India and Pakistan, such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi, and Bengali. Iranian
languages such as Farsi (modern Persian), Pashto, and Kurdish are spoken in
Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.
Albanian:
Albanian is the last branch of
Indo-European languages to appear in written form. There are two hypotheses on
the origin of Albanian. The first one says that Albanian is a modern descendant
of Illyrian, a language which was widely spoken in the region during classical
times. Since we know very little about Illyrian, this assertion can be neither
denied nor confirmed from a linguistic standpoint. From a historical and
geographical perspective, however, this assertion makes sense. Another
hypothesis says that Albanian is a descendant of Thracian, another lost
language that was spoken farther east than Illyrian.
Today Albanian is spoken in Albania as
the official language, in several other areas in of the former Yugoslavia and
in small enclaves in southern Italy, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia.
Armenian:
The origins of the Armenian-speaking
people are a topic still unresolved. It is probable that the Armenians and the
Phrygians belonged to the same migratory wave that entered Anatolia, coming
from the Balkans around the late 2nd millennium BCE. The Armenians settled in
an area around Lake Van, currently Turkey; this region belonged to the state of
Urartu during the early 1st millennium BCE.
In the 8th century BCE, Urartu came
under Assyrian control and in the 7th century BCE, the Armenians
took over the region. The Medes absorbed the region soon after and Armenia
became a vassal state. During the time of the Achaemenid Empire, the region
turned into a Persian satrap. The Persian domination had a strong linguistic
impact on Armenian, which mislead many scholars in the past to believe that
Armenian belonged to the Iranian group.
Balto-Slavic:
This branch contains two sub-branches:
Baltic and Slavic.
During the late Bronze Age, the Balts'
territory may have stretched from around western Poland all the way across to
the Ural Mountains. Afterwards, the Balts occupied a small region along the
Baltic Sea. Those in the northern part of the territory occupied by the Balts
were in close contact with Finnic tribes, whose language was not part of the
Indo-European language family: Finnic speakers borrowed a considerable amount
of Baltic words, which suggests that the Balts had an important cultural
prestige in that area. Under the pressure of Gothic and Slavic migrations, the
territory of the Balts was reduced towards the 5th century CE.
Archaeological evidence shows that from
1500 BCE, either the Slavs or their ancestors occupied an area stretching from
near the western Polish borders towards the Dnieper River in Belarus. During
the 6th century CE, the Slav-speaking tribes expanded their territory,
migrating into Greece and the Balkans: this is when they are mentioned for the
first time, in Byzantine records referring to this large migration. Either some
or all the Slavs were once located further to the east, in or around Iranian
territory, since many Iranian words were borrowed into pre-Slavic at an early
stage. Later, as they moved westward, they encountered German tribes and again
borrowed several additional terms.
Only two Baltic languages survive today:
Latvian and Lithuanian. Many Slavic languages survive today, such as Bulgarian,
Czech, Croatian, Polish, Serbian, Slovak, Russian, and many others.
Greek:
Rather than a branch of languages, Greek
is a group of dialects: During more than 3000 years of written history, Greek
dialects never evolved into mutually incomprehensible languages. Greek was
predominant in the southern end of the Balkans, the Peloponnese peninsula, and
the Aegean Sea and its vicinity. The earliest surviving written evidence of a
Greek language is Mycenaean, the dialect of the Mycenaean civilization, mainly
found on clay tablets and ceramic vessels on the isle of Crete. Mycenaean did
not have an alphabetic written system, rather it had a syllabic script known as
the Linear B script.
The first alphabetic inscriptions have
been dated back to the early 8th century BCE, which is probably the time when
the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, reached their present form. There
were many Greek dialects in ancient times, but because of Athens cultural
supremacy in the 5th century BCE, it was the Athens dialect, called Attic, the
one that became the standard literary language during the Classical period
(480-323 BCE). Therefore, the most famous Greek poetry and prose written in
Classical times were written in Attic: Aristophanes, Aristotle, Euripides, and
Plato are just a few examples of authors who wrote in Attic.
Italic:
This branch was predominant in the
Italian peninsula. The Italic people were not natives of Italy; they entered
Italy crossing the Alps around 1000 BCE and gradually moved southward. Latin,
the most famous language in this group, was originally a relatively small local
language spoken by pastoral tribes living in small agricultural settlements in
the centre of the Italian peninsula. The first inscriptions in Latin appeared
in the 7th century BCE and by the 6th century BCE it had spread significantly.
Rome was responsible for the growth of
Latin in ancient times. Classical Latin is the form of Latin used by the most
famous works of Roman authors like Ovid, Cicero, Seneca, Pliny, and Marcus
Aurelius. Other languages of this branch are Faliscan, Sabellic, Umbrian, South
Picene, and Oscan, all of them extinct.
Today Romance languages are the only
surviving descendants of the Italic branch.
Celtic:
This branch contains two sub-branches:
Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic. By about 600 BCE, Celtic-speaking tribes
had spread from what today are southern Germany, Austria, and Western Czech
Republic in almost all directions, to France, Belgium, Spain, and the British
Isles, then by 400 BCE, they also moved southward into northern Italy and
southeast into the Balkans and even beyond. During the early 1st century BCE,
Celtic-speaking tribes dominated a very significant portion of Europe. On 50
BCE, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (ancient France) and Britain was also
conquered about a century later by the emperor Claudius. As a result, this
large Celtic-speaking area was absorbed by Rome, Latin became the dominant
language, and the Continental Celtic languages eventually died out. The chief
Continental language was Gaulish.
Insular Celtic developed in the British
Isles after Celtic-speaking tribes entered around the 6th century BCE. In
Ireland, Insular Celtic flourished, aided by the geographical isolation which
kept Ireland relatively safe from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon invasion.
The only Celtic languages still spoken
today (Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Breton) all come from Insular
Celtic.
Germanic:
The Germanic branch is divided in three
sub-branches: East Germanic, currently extinct; North Germanic, containing Old
Norse, the ancestor of all modern Scandinavian languages; and West Germanic,
containing Old English, Old Saxon, and Old High German.
The earliest evidence of
Germanic-speaking people dates back to first half of the 1st millennium BCE,
and they lived in an area stretching from southern Scandinavia to the coast of
the North Baltic Sea. During prehistoric times, the Germanic speaking tribes
came into contact with Finnic speakers in the north and also with Balto-Slavic
tribes in the east. As a result of this interaction, the Germanic language
borrowed several terms from Finnish and Balto-Slavic.
Several varieties of Old Norse were
spoken by most Vikings. Native Nordic pre-Christian Germanic mythology and
folklore has been also preserved in Old Norse, in a dialect named Old
Icelandic.
Dutch, English, Frisian, and Yiddish are
some examples of modern survivors of the West Germanic sub-branch, while
Danish, Faroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish are survivors of the North
Germanic branch.
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Impact of European and British Legend on Literature
5.4 BEOWULF
ALTHOUGH the manuscript which
contains the epic of Beowulf was written about 1000 A.D., the poem itself was
known and had been elaborated upon for centuries by minstrels who recited the
heroic exploits of the son of Ecgtheow and nephew of Hygelac, King of the Geats,
whose kingdom was what is now Southern Sweden.
In his boyhood Beowulf gave
evidence of the great feats of strength and courage which in manhood made him
the deliverer of Hrothgar, King of Denmark, from the monster, Grendel, and
later in his own kingdom from the fiery dragon which dealt Beowulf a mortal blow.
Beowulf's first renown followed
his conquest of many sea-monsters while he swam for seven days and nights
before he came to the country of the Finns. Helping to defend the land of the
Hetware, he killed many of the enemy and again showed his prowess as a swimmer
by bringing to his ship the armor of thirty of his slain pursuers. Offered the
crown of his native land, Beowulf, just entering manhood, refused it in favor
of Heardred, the young son of the queen. Instead, he acted as guardian and
counsellor until the boy-king grew old enough to rule alone.
For twelve years, Hrothgar,
King of Denmark, suffered while his kingdom was being ravaged by a devouring
monster, named Grendel. This Grendel bore a charmed life against all weapons
forged by man. He lived in the wastelands and nightly prowled out to visit the hall
of Hrothgar, carrying off and slaughtering many of the guests.
Beowulf, hearing from mariners
of Grendel's murderous visits, sailed from Geatland with fourteen stalwart
companions to render Hrothgar the help of his great strength. Landing on the
Danish coast, Beowulf was challenged as a spy. He persuaded the coastguards to
let him pass, and he was received and feasted by King Hrothgar. When the king
and his court retired for the night, Beowulf and his companions were left alone
in the hall. All but Beowulf fell asleep. Grendel entered. With a stroke he
killed one of Beowulf's sleeping men, but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestled with the
monster and by dint of his great strength managed to tear Grendel's arm out at
the shoulder. Grendel, mortally wounded, retreated, leaving a bloody trail from
the hall to his lair.
All fear of another attack by
Grendel allayed. The Danes returned to the hall, and Beowulf and his companions
were sheltered elsewhere. Grendel's mother came to avenge the fatal injury to
her monster son and carried off a Danish nobleman and Grendel's torn-off paw.
Following the blood trail, Beowulf
went forth to despatch the mother. Armed with his sword, Hrunting, he came to
the water's edge. He plunged in and swam to a chamber under the sea. There he
fought with Grendel's mother, killing her with an old sword he found in the sea
cavern. Nearby was Grendel's body. Beowulf cut off its head and brought it back
as a trophy to King Hrothgar. Great was the rejoicing in the hall and greater
was Beowulf's welcome when he returned to Geatland, where he was given great
estates and many high honors.
Shortly afterward, Heardred,
the boy-king, was killed in the war with the Swedes. Beowulf succeeded him to
the throne.
For fifty years Beowulf ruled
his people in peace and serenity. Then suddenly a dragon, furious at having his
treasure stolen from his hoard in a burial mound, began to ravage Beowulf's
kingdom. Like Grendel, this monster left its den at night on its errand of
murder and pillage.
Beowulf, now an aged monarch,
resolved to do battle, unaided, with the dragon. He approached the entrance to
its den, whence boiling steam issued forth. Undaunted, Beowulf strode forward
shouting his defiance. The dragon came out, sputtering flames from its mouth.
The monster rushed upon Beowulf with all its fury and almost crushed him in its
first charge. So fearful grew the struggle that all but one of Beowulf's men
deserted and fled for their lives. Wiglaf remained to help his aged monarch.
Another rush of the dragon shattered Beowulf's sword and the monster's fangs
sunk into Beowulf's neck. Wiglaf, rushing into the struggle, helped the dying
Beowulf to kill the dragon.
Before his death, Beowulf named
Wiglaf his successor to the throne of Geatland and ordered that his own ashes
be placed in a memorial shrine at the top of a high cliff commanding the sea.
Beowulf's body was burned on a vast funeral pyre, while twelve Geats rode
around the mound singing their sorrow and their praise for the good and great
man, Beowulf.
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BA English Literature
[1st Year, 1st Semester]
Background to English Literature
Unit 5
Impact
of European and British Legend on Literature
5.1
Valhalla – the Valkyrior
NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY- VALHALLA-
THE VALKYRIOR
NORTHERN MYTHOLOGY
The stories which have engaged our attention thus far relate to
the mythology of southern regions. But there is another branch of ancient
superstitions which ought not to be entirely overlooked, especially as it belongs
to the nations from which we, through our English ancestors, derive our origin.
It is that of the northern nations, called Scandinavians, who inhabited the
countries now known as Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Iceland. These mythological
records are contained in two collections called the Eddas, of which the oldest
is in poetry and dates back to the year 1O56, the more modern or prose Edda
being of the date of 1640.
According to the Eddas there was once no heaven above nor earth
beneath, but only a bottomless deep, and a world of mist in which flowed a
fountain. Twelve rivers issued from this fountain, and when they had flowed far
from their source, they froze into ice, and one layer accumulating over
another, the great deep was filled up.
Southward from the world of mist was the world of light. From
this flowed a warm wind upon the ice and melted it. The vapours rose in the air
and formed clouds, from which sprang Yamir, the Frost giant and his progeny, and
the cow Audhumbla, whose milk afforded nourishment and food to the giant. The
cow got nourishment by licking the hoar frost and salt from the ice. While she
was one day licking the salt stones there appeared at first the hair of a man,
on the second day the whole head, and on the third the entire form endowed with
beauty, agility, and power. This new being was a god, from whom and his wife, a
daughter of the giant race, sprang the three brothers Odin, Vili, and Ve. They
slew the giant Yamir, and out of his body formed the earth, of his blood the
seas, of his bones the mountains, of his hair the trees, of his skull the
heavens, and of his brain clouds, charged with hail and snow. Of Yamir's
eyebrows the gods formed Midgard (mid earth), destined to become the abode of
man.
Odin then regulated the periods of day and night and the seasons
by placing in the heavens the sun and moon, and appointing to them their
respective courses. As soon as the sun began to shed its rays upon the earth,
it caused the vegetable world to bud and sprout. Shortly after the gods had
created the world they walked by the side of the sea, pleased with their new
work, but found that it was still incomplete, for it was without human beings.
They therefore took an ash tree and made a man out of it, and they made a woman
out of an alder, and called the man Aske and the woman Embla. Odin then gave
them life and soul, Vili reason and motion, and Ve bestowed upon them the
senses, expressive features, and speech. Midgard was then given them as their
residence, and they became the progenitors of the human race.
The mighty ash tree Ygdrasill was supposed to support the whole
universe. It sprang from the body of Yamir, and had three immense roots;
extending one into Asgard (the dwelling of the gods), the other into Jotunheim
(the abode of the giants), and the third to Niffleheim (the regions of darkness
and cold). By the side of each of these roots is a spring, from which it is
watered. The root that extends into Asgard is carefully tended by the three
Norns, goddesses, who are regarded as the dispensers of fate. They are Urdur
(the past), Verdandi (the present), Skuld (the future). The spring at the
Jotunheim side is Ymir's well, in which wisdom and wit lie hidden, but that of
Niffleheim feeds the adder Nidhogge (darkness), which perpetually gnaws at the
root. Four harts run across the branches of the tree and bite the buds; they
represent the four winds. Under the tree lies Ymir, and when he tries to shake
off its weight the earth quakes.
Asgard is the name of the abode of the gods, access to which is
only gained by crossing the bridge Bifrost (the rainbow). Asgard consists of
golden and silver palaces, the dwellings of the gods, but the most beautiful of
these is Valhalla, the residence of Odin. When seated on his throne he
overlooks all heaven and earth. Upon his shoulders are the ravens Hugin and
Munin, who fly every day over the whole world, and on their return report to
him all they have seen and heard. At his feet lie his two wolves, Geri and
Freki, to whom Odin gives all the meat that is set before him, for he himself
stands in no need of food. Mead is for him both food and drink. He invented the
Runic characters, and it is the business of the Norns to engrave the runes of
fate upon a metal shield. From Odin's name, spelt Woden, as it sometimes is,
came Wednesday, the name of the fourth day of the week.
Odin is frequently called Alfdaur (All-father), but this name is
sometimes used in a way that shows that the Scandinavians had an idea of a
deity superior to Odin, uncreated and eternal.
OF THE
JOYS OF VALHALLA
Valhalla is the great hall of Odin, wherein he feasts with his
chosen heroes, all those who have fallen bravely in battle, for all who die a
peaceful death are excluded. The flesh of the boar Schrimnir is served up to
them, and is abundant for all. For although this boar is cooked every morning,
be becomes whole again every night. For drink the heroes are supplied
abundantly with mead from the she-goat Heidrum. When the heroes are not
feasting they amuse themselves with fighting. Every day they ride out into the
court or field and fight until they cut each other in pieces. This is their
pastime; but when meal time comes they recover from their wounds and return to
feast in Valhalla.
THE
VALKYRIOR
The Valkyrior are warlike virgins, mounted upon horses and armed
with helmets and spears. Odin, who is desirous to collect a great many heroes
in Valhalla, to be able to meet the giants in a day when the final contest must
come, sends down to every battlefield to make choice of those who shall be slain.
The Valkyrior are his messengers, and their name means "Choosers of the
slain." When they ride forth on their errand, their armour sheds a strange
flickering light, which flashes up over the northern skies, making what men
call the "Aurora Borealis," or "Northern Lights."*
THOR'S VISIT TO JOTUNHEIM
JOTUNHEIM, THE GIANT'S COUNTRY
ONE day the god Thor, with his servant Thialfi, and accompanied
by Loki, set out on a journey to the giant's country. Thialfi was of all men
the swiftest of foot. He bore Thor's wallet, containing their provisions. When
night came on they found themselves in an immense forest, and searched on all
sides for a place where they might pass the night, and at last came to a very
large hall, with an entrance that took the whole breadth of one end of the
building. Here they lay down to sleep, but towards midnight were alarmed by an
earthquake which shook the whole edifice. Thor, rising up, called on his
companions to seek with him a place of safety. On the right they found an
adjoining chamber, into which the others entered, but Thor remained at the
doorway with his mallet in his hand, prepared to defend himself, whatever might
happen. A terrible groaning was heard during the night, and at dawn of day Thor
went out and found lying near him a huge giant, who slept and snored in the way
that had alarmed them so. It is said that for once Thor was afraid to use his mallet,
and as the giant soon waked up, Thor contented himself with simply asking his
name.
"My name is Skrymir," said the giant, "but I need
not ask thy name, for I know that thou art the god Thor. But what has become of
my glove?" Thor then perceived that what they had taken overnight for a
hall was the giant's glove, and the chamber where his two companions had sought
refuge was the thumb. Skrymir then proposed that they should travel in company,
and Thor consenting, they sat down to eat their breakfast, and when they had
done, Skrymir packed all the provisions into one wallet, threw it over his
shoulder, and strode on before them, taking such tremendous strides that they
were hard put to it to keep up with him. So they travelled the whole day, and
at dusk Skrymir chose a place for them to pass the night in under a large oak
tree. Skrymir then told them he would lie down to sleep. "But take ye the
wallet," he added, "and prepare your supper."
Skrymir soon fell asleep and began to snore strongly; but when Thor
tried to open the wallet, he found the giant had tied it up so tight he could
not untie a single knot. At last Thor became wroth, and grasping his mallet
with both hands he struck a furious blow on the giant's head. Skrymir,
awakening, merely asked whether a leaf had not fallen on his head, and whether
they had supped and were ready to go to sleep. Thor answered that they were
just going to sleep, and so saying went and laid himself down under another
tree. But sleep came not that night to Thor, and when Skrymir snored again so
loud that the forest re-echoed with the noise, he arose, and grasping his
mallet launched it with such force at the giant's skull that it made a deep
dint in it. Skrymir, awakening, cried out, "What's the matter? Are there
any birds perched on this tree? I felt some moss from the branches fall on my
head. How fares it with thee, Thor?" But Thor went away hastily, saying
that he had just then awoke, and that as it was only midnight, there was still
time for sleep. He, however, resolved that if he had an opportunity of striking
a third blow, it should settle all matters between them. A little before
daybreak he perceived that Skrymir was again fast asleep, and again grasping
his mallet, he dashed it with such violence that it forced its way into the
giant's skull up to the handle. But Skrymir sat up, and stroking his cheek
said, "An acorn fell on my head. What! Art thou awake, Thor? Methinks it
is time for us to get up and dress ourselves; but you have not now a long way
before you to the city called Utgard. I have heard you whispering to one
another that I am not a man of small dimensions; but if you come to Utgard you
will see there many men much taller than I. Wherefore I advise you, when you
come there, not to make too much of yourselves, for the followers of
Utgard-Loki will not brook the boasting of such little fellows as you are. You
must take the road that leads eastward, mine lies northward, so we must part
here."
Hereupon he threw his wallet over his shoulders and turned away from
them into the forest, and Thor had no wish to stop him or to ask for any more
of his company.
Thor and his companions proceeded on their way, and towards noon
descried a city standing in the middle of a plain. It was so lofty that they
were obliged to bend their necks quite back on their shoulders in order to see
to the top of it. On arriving they entered the city, and seeing a large palace
before them with the door wide open, they went in, and found a number of men of
prodigious stature, sitting on benches in the hall. Going further, they came
before the king, Utgard-Loki, whom they saluted with great respect. The king,
regarding them with a scornful smile, said, "If I do not mistake me, that
stripling yonder must be the god Thor." Then addressing himself to Thor,
he said, "Perhaps thou mayst be more than thou appearest to be. What are
the feats that thou and thy fellows deem yourselves skilled in, for no one is
permitted to remain here who does not, in some feat or other, excel all other
men?"
"The feat that I know," said Loki, "is to eat
quicker than any one else, and in this I am ready to give a proof against any
one here who may choose to compete with me."
"That will indeed be a feat," said Utgard-Loki,
"if thou performest what thou promisest, and it shall be tried
forthwith."
He then ordered one of his men who was sitting at the farther
end of the bench, and whose name was Logi, to come forward and try his skill
with Loki. A trough filled with meat having been set on the hall floor, Loki
placed himself at one end, and Logi at the other, and each of them began to eat
as fast as he could, until they met in the middle of the trough. But it was
found that Loki had only eaten the flesh, while his adversary had devoured both
flesh and bone, and the trough to boot. All the company therefore adjudged that
Loki was vanquished.
Utgard-Loki then asked what feat the young man who accompanied
Thor could perform. Thialfi answered that he would run a race with any one who
might be matched against him. The king observed that skill in running was
something to boast of, but if the youth would win the match, he must display
great agility. He then arose and went with all who were present to a plain
where there was good ground for running on, and calling a young man named Hugi,
bade him run a match with Thialfi. In the first course Hugi so much outstripped
his competitor that he turned back and met him not far from the starting place.
Then they ran a second and a third time, but Thialfi met with no better
success.
Utgard-Loki then asked Thor in what feats he would choose to
give proofs of that prowess for which he was so famous. Thor answered that he
would try a drinking match with any one. Utgard-Loki bade his cupbearer bring
the large horn which his followers were obliged to empty when they had
trespassed in any way against the law of the feast. The cupbearer having
presented it to Thor, Utgard-Loki said, "Whoever is a good drinker will
empty that horn at a single draught, though most men make two of it, but the
most puny drinker can do it in three."
Thor looked at the horn, which seemed of no extraordinary size
though somewhat long; however, as he was very thirsty, he set it to his lips,
and without drawing breath, pulled as long and as deeply as he could, that he
might not be obliged to make a second draught of it; but when he set the horn
down and looked in, he could scarcely perceive that the liquor was diminished.
After taking breath, Thor went to it again with all his might,
but when he took the horn from his mouth, it seemed to him that he had drunk
rather less than before, although the horn could now be carried without
spilling.
"How now, Thor?" said Utgard-Loki; "thou must not
spare thyself; if thou meanest to drain the horn at the third draught thou must
pull deeply; and I must needs say that thou wilt not be called so mighty a man
here as thou art at home if thou showest no greater prowess in other feats than
methinks will be shown in this."
Thor, full of wrath, again set the horn to his lips, and did his
best to empty it; but on looking in found the liquor was only a little lower,
so he resolved to make no further attempt, but gave back the horn to the
cupbearer.
"I now see plainly," said Utgard-Loki, "that thou
art not quite so stout as we thought thee: but wilt thou try any other feat,
though methinks thou art not likely to bear any prize away with thee
hence."
"What new trial hast thou to propose?" said Thor.
"We have a very trifling game here," answered
Utgard-Loki, "in which we exercise none but children. It consists in
merely lifting my cat from the ground; nor should I have dared to mention such
a feat to the great Thor if I had not already observed that thou art by no
means what we took thee for."
As he finished speaking, a large grey cat sprang on the hall
floor. Thor put his hand under the cat's belly and did his utmost to raise him
from the floor, but the cat, bending his back, had, notwithstanding all Thor's
efforts, only one of his feet lifted up, seeing which Thor made no further
attempt.
"This trial has turned out," said Utgard-Loki,
"just as I imagined it would. The cat is large, but Thor is little in
comparison to our men."
"Little as ye call me," answered Thor, "let me
see who among you will come hither now I am in wrath and wrestle with me."
"I see no one here," said Utgard-Loki, looking at the
men sitting on the benches, "who would not think it beneath him to wrestle
with thee; let somebody, however, call hither that old crone, my nurse Elli,
and let Thor wrestle with her if he will. She has thrown to the ground many a
man not less strong than this Thor is."
A toothless old woman then entered the hall, and was told by
Utgard-Loki to take hold of Thor. The tale is shortly told. The more Thor
tightened his hold on the crone the firmer she stood. At length after a very
violent struggle Thor began to lose his footing, and was finally brought down
upon one knee. Utgard-Loki then told them to desist, adding that Thor had now
no occasion to ask any one else in the hall to wrestle with him, and it was
also getting late; so he showed Thor and his companions to their seats, and
they passed the night there in good cheer.
The next morning, at break of day, Thor and his companions
dressed themselves and prepared for their departure. Utgard-Loki ordered a
table to be set for them, on which there was no lack of victuals or drink.
After the repast Utgard-Loki led them to the gate of the city, and on parting
asked Thor how he thought his journey had turned out, and whether he had met
with any men stronger than himself. Thor told him that he could not deny but
that he had brought great shame on himself. "And what grieves me
most," he added, "is that ye will call me a person of little
worth."
"Nay," said Utgard-Loki, "it behooves me to tell
thee the truth, now thou art out of the city, which so long as I live and have
my way thou shalt never enter again. And, by my troth, had I known beforehand
that thou hadst so much strength in thee, and wouldst have brought me so near
to a great mishap, I would not have suffered thee to enter this time. Know then
that I have all along deceived thee by my illusions; first in the forest, where
I tied up the wallet with iron wire so that thou couldst not untie it. After
this thou gavest me three blows with thy mallet; the first, though the least,
would have ended my days had it fallen on me, but I slipped aside and thy blows
fell on the mountain, where thou wilt find three glens, one of them remarkably
deep. These are the dints made by thy mallet. I have made use of similar illusions
in the contests you have had with my followers. In the first, Loki, like hunger
itself, devoured all that was set before him, but Logi was in reality nothing
else than Fire, and therefore consumed not only the meat, but the trough which
held it. Hugi, with whom Thialfi contended in running, was Thought, and it was
impossible for Thialfi to keep pace with that. When thou in thy turn didst
attempt to empty the horn, thou didst perform, by my troth, a deed so
marvellous that had I not seen it myself I should never have believed it. For
one end of that horn reached the sea, which thou wast not aware of, but when
thou comest to the shore thou wilt perceive how much the sea has sunk by thy
draughts. Thou didst perform a feat no less wonderful by lifting up the cat,
and to tell thee the truth, when we saw that one of his paws was off the floor,
we were all of us terror-stricken, for what thou tookest for a cat was in
reality the Midgard serpent that encompasseth the earth, and he was so
stretched by thee that he was barely long enough to enclose it between his head
and tail. Thy wrestling with Elli was also a most astonishing feat, for there
was never yet a man, nor ever will be, whom Old Age, for such in fact was Elli,
will not sooner or later lay low. But now, as we are going to part, let me tell
thee that it will be better for both of us if thou never come near me again,
for shouldst thou do so, I shall again defend myself by other illusions, so
that thou wilt only lose thy labour and get no fame from the contest with
me."
On hearing these words Thor in a rage laid hold of his mallet
and would have launched it at him, but Utgard-Loki had disappeared, and when
Thor would have returned to the city to destroy it, he found nothing around him
but a verdant plain.
THE DEATH OF BALDUR- THE ELVES- RUNIC LETTERS-
SKALDS- ICELAND
THE
DEATH OF BALDUR
BALDUR the Good,
having been tormented with terrible dreams indicating that his life was in
peril, told them to the assembled gods, who resolved to conjure all things to avert
from him the threatened danger. Then Frigga, the wife of Odin, exacted an oath
from fire and water, from iron and all other metals, from stones, trees,
diseases, beasts, birds, poisons, and creeping things, that none of them would
do any harm to Baldur. Odin, not satisfied with all this, and feeling alarmed
for the fate of his son, determined to consult the prophetess Angerbode, a
giantess, mother of Fenris, Hela, and the Midgard serpent. She was dead, and
Odin was forced to seek her in Hela's dominions. This Descent of Odin forms the
subject of Gray's fine ode beginning:
"Uprose the
king of men with speed
And saddled
straight his coal-black steed."
But the other gods, feeling that what Frigga had done was quite
sufficient, amused themselves with using Baldur as a mark, some hurling darts
at him, some stones, while others hewed at him with their swords and
battle-axes; for do what they would, none of them could harm him. And this
became a favourite pastime with them and was regarded as an honour shown to
Baldur. But when Loki beheld the scene he was sorely vexed that Baldur was not
hurt. Assuming, therefore, the shape of a woman, he went to Fensalir, the
mansion of Frigga. That goddess, when she saw the pretended woman, inquired of
her if she knew what the gods were doing at their meetings. She replied that
they were throwing darts and stones at Baldur, without being able to hurt him.
"Ay," said Frigga, "neither stones, nor sticks, nor anything
else can hurt Baldur, for I have exacted an oath from all of them."
"What," exclaimed the woman, "have all things sworn to spare
Baldur?" "All things," replied Frigga, "except one little
shrub that grows on the eastern side of Valhalla, and is called Mistletoe, and
which I thought too young and feeble to crave an oath from."
As soon as Loki
heard this he went away, and resuming his natural shape, cut off the mistletoe,
and repaired to the place where the gods were assembled. There he found Hodur
standing apart, without partaking of the sports, on account of his blindness,
and going up to him, said, "Why dost thou not also throw something at
Baldur?"
"Because I am
blind," answered Hodur, "and see not where Baldur is, and have,
moreover, nothing to throw."
"Come,
then," said Loki, "do like the rest, and show honour to Baldur by
throwing this twig at him, and I will direct thy arm towards the place where he
stands."
Hodur then took the
mistletoe, and under the guidance of Loki, darted it at Baldur, who, pierced
through and through, fell down lifeless. Surely never was there witnessed,
either among gods or men, a more atrocious deed than this. When Baldur fell,
the gods were struck speechless with horror, and then they looked at each other
and all were of one mind to lay hands on him who had done the deed, but they
were obliged to delay their vengeance out of respect for the sacred place where
they were assembled. They gave vent to their grief by loud lamentations. When
the gods came to themselves, Frigga asked who among them wished to gain all her
love and good will. "For this," said she, "shall he have who
will ride to Hel and offer Hela a ransom if she will let Baldur return to
Asgard." Whereupon Hermod, surnamed the Nimble, the son of Odin, offered
to undertake the journey. Odin's horse, Sleipnir, which has eight legs and can
outrun the wind, was then led forth, on which Hermod mounted and galloped away
on his mission. For the space of nine days and as many nights he rode through
deep glens so dark that he could not discern anything, until he arrived at the
river Gyoll, which he passed over on a bridge covered with glittering gold. The
maiden who kept the bridge asked him his name and lineage, telling him that the
day before five bands of dead persons had ridden over the bridge, and did not
shake it as much as he alone. "But," she added, "thou hast not
death's hue on thee; why then ridest thou here on the way to Hel?"
"I ride to
Hel," answered Hermod, "to seek Baldur. Hast thou perchance seen him
pass this way?"
She replied,
"Baldur hath ridden over Gyoll's bridge, and yonder lieth the way he took
to the abodes of death."
Hermod pursued his
journey until he came to the barred gates of Hel. Here he alighted, girthed his
saddle tighter, and remounting clapped both spurs to his horse, who cleared the
gate by a tremendous leap without touching it. Hermod then rode on to the
palace, where he found his brother Baldur occupying the most distinguished seat
in the hall, and passed the night in his company. The next morning he besought
Hela to let Baldur ride home with him, assuring her that nothing but
lamentations were to be heard among the gods. Hela answered that it should now
be tried whether Baldur was so beloved as he was said to be. "If,
therefore," she added, "all things in the world, both living and
lifeless, weep for him, then shall he return to life; but if any one thing
speak against him or refuse to weep, he shall be kept in Hel."
Hermod then rode
back to Asgard and gave an account of all he had heard and witnessed.
The gods upon this
despatched messengers throughout the world to beg everything to weep in order
that Baldur might be delivered from Hel. All things very willingly complied
with this request, both men and every other living being, as well as earths,
and stones, and trees, and metals, just as we have all seen these things weep
when they are brought from a cold place into a hot one. As the messengers were
returning, they found an old hag named Thaukt sitting in a cavern, and begged
her to weep Baldur out of Hel. But she answered:
"Thaukt will wail
With dry
tears
Baldur's
bale-fire.
Let Hela
keep her own."
It was strongly
suspected that this hag was no other than Loki himself, who never ceased to
work evil among gods and men. So Baldur was prevented from coming back to
Asgard.*
* In Longfellow's
Poems will be found a poem entitled "Tegner's Drapa," upon the
subject of Baldur's death.
THE FUNERAL OF BALDUR
The gods took up the
dead body and bore it to the seashore where stood Baldur's ship
"Hringham," which passed for the largest in the world. Baldur's dead
body was put on the funeral pile, on board the ship, and his wife Nanna was so
struck with grief at the sight that she broke her heart, and her body was
burned on the same pile with her husband's. There was a vast concourse of
various kinds of people at Baldur's obsequies. First came Odin accompanied by
Frigga, the Valkyrior, and his ravens; then Frey in his car drawn by
Gullinbursti, the boar; Heimdall rode his horse Gulltopp, and Freya drove in
her chariot drawn by cats. There were also a great many Frost giants and giants
of the mountain present. Baldur's horse was led to the pile fully caparisoned
and consumed in the same flames with his master.
But Loki did not
escape his deserved punishment. When he saw how angry the gods were, he fled to
the mountain, and there built himself a hut with four doors, so that he could
see every approaching danger. He invented a net to catch the fishes, such as
fishermen have used since his time. But Odin found out his hiding-place and the
gods assembled to take him. He, seeing this, changed himself into a salmon, and
lay hid among the stones of the brook. But the gods took his net and dragged
the brook, and Loki, finding he must be caught, tried to leap over the net; but
Thor caught him by the tail and compressed it, so that salmons ever since have
had that part remarkably fine and thin. They bound him with chains and
suspended a serpent over his head, whose venom falls upon his face drop by
drop. His wife Siguna sits by his side and catches the drops as they fall, in a
cup; but when she carries it away to empty it, the venom falls upon Loki, which
makes him howl with horror, and twist his body about so violently that the
whole earth shakes, and this produces what men call earthquakes.
THE ELVES
The Edda mentions
another class of beings, inferior to the gods, but still possessed of great
power; these were called Elves. The white spirits, or Elves of Light, were
exceedingly fair, more brilliant than the sun, and clad in garments of a
delicate and transparent texture. They loved the light, were kindly disposed to
mankind, and generally appeared as fair and lovely children. Their country was
called Alfheim, and was the domain of Freyr, the god of the sun, in whose light
they were always sporting.
The black or Night
Elves were a different kind of creatures. Ugly, long-nosed dwarfs, of a dirty
brown colour, they appeared only at night, for they avoided the sun as their
most deadly enemy, because whenever his beams fell upon any of them they
changed them immediately into stones. Their language was the echo of solitudes,
and their dwelling-places subterranean caves and clefts. They were supposed to
have come into existence as maggots produced by the decaying flesh of Ymir's
body, and were afterwards endowed by the gods with a human form and great
understanding. They were particularly distinguished for a knowledge of the
mysterious powers of nature, and for the runes which they carved and explained.
They were the most skilful artificers of all created beings, and worked in
metals and in wood. Among their most noted works were Thor's hammer, and the
ship "Skidbladnir," which they gave to Freyr, and which was so large
that it could contain all the deities with their war and household implements,
but so skilfully was it wrought that when folded together it could be put into
a side pocket.
RAGNAROK, THE TWILIGHT OF THE GODS
It was a firm belief
of the northern nations that a time would come when all the visible creation,
the gods of Valhalla and Niffleheim, the inhabitants of Jotunheim, Alfheim, and
Midgard, together with their habitations, would be destroyed. The fearful day
of destruction will not, however, be without its forerunners. First will come a
triple winter, during which snow will fall from the four corners of the
heavens, the frost be very severe, the wind piercing, the weather tempestuous,
and the sun impart no gladness. Three such winters will pass away without being
tempered by a single summer. Three other similar winters will then follow,
during which war and discord will spread over the universe. The earth itself
will be frightened and begin to tremble, the sea leave its basin, the heavens
tear asunder, and men perish in great numbers, and the eagles of the air feast
upon their still quivering bodies. The wolf Fenris will now break his bands,
the Midgard serpent rise out of her bed in the sea, and Loki, released from his
bonds, will join the enemies of the gods. Amidst the general devastation the
sons of Muspelheim will rush forth under their leader Surtur, before and behind
whom are flames and burning fire. Onward they ride over Bifrost, the rainbow
bridge, which breaks under the horses' hoofs. But they, disregarding its fall,
direct their course to the battlefield called Vigrid. Thither also repair the
wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, Loki with all the followers of Hela, and the
Frost giants.
Heimdall now stands
up and sounds the Giallar horn to assemble the gods and heroes for the contest.
The gods advance, led on by Odin, who engages the wolf Fenris, but falls a
victim to the monster, who is, however, slain by Vidar, Odin's son. Thor gains
great renown by killing the Midgard serpent, but recoils and falls dead,
suffocated with the venom which the dying monster vomits over him. Loki and
Heimdall meet and fight till they are both slain. The gods and their enemies
having fallen in battle, Surtur, who has killed Freyr, darts fire and flames over
the world, and the whole universe is burned up. The sun becomes dim, the earth
sinks into the ocean, the stars fall from heaven, and time is no more.
After this Alfadur
(the Almighty) will cause a new heaven and a new earth to arise out of the sea.
The new earth filled with abundant supplies will spontaneously produce its
fruits without labour or care. Wickedness and misery will no more be known, but
the gods and men will live happily together.
RUNIC LETTERS
One cannot travel
far in Denmark, Norway, or Sweden without meeting with great stones of
different forms, engraven with characters called Runic, which appear at first
sight very different from all we know. The letters consist almost invariably of
straight lines, in the shape of little sticks either singly or put together.
Such sticks were in early times used by the northern nations for the purpose of
ascertaining future events. The sticks were shaken up, and from the figures
that they formed a kind of divination was derived.
The Runic characters
were of various kinds. They were chiefly used for magical purposes. The
noxious, or, as they called them, the bitter runes, were employed to bring
various evils on their enemies; the favourable averted misfortune. Some were
medicinal, others employed to win love, etc. In later times they were
frequently used for inscriptions, of which more than a thousand have been
found. The language is a dialect of the Gothic, called Norse, still in use in
Iceland. The inscriptions may therefore be read with certainty, but hitherto
very few have been found which throw the least light on history. They are
mostly epitaphs on tombstones.
Gray's ode on the
"Descent of Odin" contains an allusion to the use of Runic letters
for incantation:
"Facing to
the northern clime,
Thrice he
traced the Runic rhyme;
Thrice
pronounced, in accents dread
The thrilling
verse that wakes the dead,
Till from out
the hollow ground
Slowly breathed
a sullen sound."
THE SKALDS
The Skalds were the
bards and poets of the nation, a very important class of men in all communities
in an early stage of civilization. They are the depositaries of whatever
historic lore there is, and it is their office to mingle something of
intellectual gratification with the rude feasts of the warriors, by rehearsing,
with such accomplishments of poetry and music as their skill can afford, the
exploits of their heroes, living or dead. The compositions of the Skalds were
called Sagas, many of which have come down to us, and contain valuable
materials of history, and a faithful picture of the state of society at the
time to which they relate.
ICELAND
The Eddas and Sagas
have come to us from Iceland. The following extract from Carlyle's lectures on
"Heroes and Hero Worship" gives an animated account of the region
where the strange stories we have been reading had their origin. Let the reader
contrast it for a moment with Greece, the parent of classical mythology:
"In that
strange island, Iceland,- burst up, the geologists say, by fire from the bottom
of the sea, a wild land of barrenness and lava, swallowed many months of every
year in black tempests, yet with a wild, gleaming beauty in summer time,
towering up there stern and grim in the North Ocean, with its snow yokuls
[mountains], roaring geysers [boiling springs], sulphur pools, and horrid
volcanic chasms, like the waste, chaotic battlefield of Frost and Fire,- where,
of all places, we least looked for literature or written memorials,- the record
of these things was written down. On the seaboard of this wild land is a rim of
grassy country, where cattle can subsist, and men by means of them and of what
the sea yields; and it seems they were poetic men these, men who had deep
thoughts in them and uttered musically their thoughts. Much would be lost had
Iceland not been burst up from the sea, not been discovered by the
Northmen!"
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